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The History of Tarot

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Introduction

Many things (true, false, and speculative) have been written about the history of the tarot. This sheet addresses some oft-repeated statements about the tarot that may seem like historical fact, but are actually without basis in the evidence presently available. This is not to say that there is no room for speculative or non-factual stories about the tarot. Myths and lore express the human soul and creativity. These myths tell us much about the significance tarot has on an inspirational growth level. They speak an inner truth that is, at times, more personally true than external facts. However, both history and myth may suffer when the two become confused.

The information given here consists mostly of conclusions that recent tarot historians have drawn from studying the evidence of written documents and cards that have come down to us. Other interpretations might be drawn from the same body of evidence. Readers interested in examining the evidence for themselves and drawing their own conclusions are directed to the references listed at the end of this sheet for useful starting places. Readers should also be aware of the limitations of relying on documentary evidence alone. Although written records are our most reliable contact with centuries past, they do not preserve everything that people thought or did, especially pertaining to an aspect of popular culture, such as the tarot.

The information on this sheet may be freely used, although direct quotations must be credited and an acknowledgement would be appreciated if you found this sheet especially useful. Permission is granted to photocopy for educational, nonprofit uses.

Topic: The time and place of the origin of the tarot

Inaccurate: The tarot comes from Egypt; India; China; Fez, Morocco; the Sufis; the Cathars; Jewish Kabbalists or Moses; or the origin of the tarot is unknown.

Current Historical Understanding: The tarot originated in northern Italy early in the 15th century (1420-1440). There is no evidence for it originating in any other time or place. The earliest extant cards are lavish hand-painted decks from the courts of the nobility.

Topic: The origin of the word "tarot"

Inaccurate: The word is Egyptian, Hebrew, or Latin; it is an anagram; it holds the key to the mystery of the cards.

Current Historical Understanding: The earliest names for the tarot are all Italian. Originally the cards were called carte da trionfi (cards of the triumphs). Around 1530 (about 100 years after the origin of the cards), the word tarocchi (singular tarocco) begins to be used to distinguish them from a new game of triumphs or trumps then being played with ordinary playing cards. The etymology of this new word is not known. The German form is tarock, the French form is tarot. Even if the etymology were known, it would probably not tell us much about the idea behind the cards, since it only came into use 100 years after they first appeared.

Topic: The cultural source of the tarot symbols

Inaccurate: The symbolism of the trumps comes from Egypt (or India, or other exotic locale).

Current Historical Understanding: The symbolism of the trumps is drawn from the culture of Medieval and Renaissance Europe. Most tarot subjects are distinctive to European Christendom. Illustrations virtually identical to each of the tarot subjects can be found in European art, and such precise analogs are not found in other cultures.

Topic: The gypsies and tarot

Inaccurate: The gypsies brought the tarot to Europe and spread its use.

Current Historical Understanding: This idea was popularized in the 19th century by several writers, notably Vaillant and Papus, without any basis in historical fact. There is no evidence that the Rom (gypsies) used tarot cards until the 20th century. Most of their fortune-telling was through palmistry and later through the use of ordinary playing cards.

Topic: Relationship between tarot and ordinary playing cards

Inaccurate: The 52-card deck evolved from the tarot, leaving the Joker as the only remnant of the major arcana.

Current Historical Understanding: Playing cards came to Europe from Islam, probably via Muslim Spain, about 50 years before the development of tarot. They appeared quite suddenly in many different European cities between 1375 and 1378. European playing cards were an adaptation of the Islamic Mamluk cards. These early cards had suits of cups, swords, coins, and polo sticks (seen by Europeans as staves), and courts consisting of a king and two male underlings. The tarot adds the Fool, the trumps, and a set of queens to this system. Some time before 1480, the French introduced cards with the now-familiar suits of hearts, clubs, spades, and diamonds. The earlier suits are still preserved in the tarot and in Italian and Spanish playing cards.

The Joker originated in the United States around 1857, used as a wild card in poker and as the highest trump in Euchre. It appears to have no direct relationship to the Fool of the tarot.

Topic: The "Charles VI" or "Gringonneur" tarot cards

Inaccurate: The tarot was invented to amuse Charles VI of France in 1392, as evidenced by a deck by Gringonneur in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris.

Current Historical Understanding: It is recorded that in 1392, Jacquemin Gringonneur was paid to paint three decks of cards for Charles VI. These were probably playing cards, not tarot. The deck in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France is a late-15th century hand-painted deck of the Northern Italian type (probably from Venice or Ferrara).

Topic: Tarot and the Hebrew Alphabet

Inaccurate: Eliphas Lévi (c. 1850) was the first to ascribe Hebrew letters to the tarot.

Current Historical Understanding: The Comte de Mellet, whose short article on the tarot was published in Court de Gébelin's Le Monde Primitif (1781), was the first to write of a connection between the Hebrew letters and the cards. Court de Gébelin also mentioned the idea in passing in his own essay.

Topic: Tarot censored by the church

Inaccurate: The Catholic and Protestant churches outlawed tarot and all who used it in an effort to stamp out either heretical teachings or a work of the Devil.

Current Historical Understanding: The Inquisition documented in considerable detail what the church regarded as evidence of heresy and the tarot is never mentioned.

Many printers made their living printing both religious cards and playing cards. Playing cards were sometimes restricted or outlawed because of their use in gambling. Tarot cards were, in fact, sometimes explicitly exempted from bans on playing cards, perhaps because of their association with the upper classes. In 1423, playing cards (tarot cards were not mentioned) were among many things thrown on the fires in Bologna by followers of Bernadino of Sienna during an attack against all studies and pastimes not focused on religion.

After the Reformation, the church did object to the cards depicting the Pope and Papess, and cardmakers substituted less controversial images.

Topic: Original use of tarot cards

Inaccurate: The tarot was originally used for divination/magic/teaching secret doctrines/etc.

Current Historical Understanding: Written records tell that the tarot was regularly used to play a card game similar to Bridge. The game was popular throughout much of Europe for centuries and is still played today, particularly in France. Early poets also used the titles of the trump cards to create flattering verses, called tarocchi appropriati, describing ladies of the court or famous personages. Although it is possible that tarot cards might also have been sometimes used for other purposes, there is no clear evidence of such use until long after the cards were invented. Records from a trial in Venice in 1589 suggest that tarot may have been associated with witchcraft (at least in the minds of the accusers) at this date, about 150 years after the appearance of the tarot. After this, there are no references connecting tarot with magic or divination until the 18th century. (See also next three questions.)

Topic: Tarot and divination

Inaccurate: Tarot was not used for divination before Etteilla and Court de Gébelin around 1781.

Current Historical Understanding: There is evidence of such use, but it is fragmentary and suggestive rather than conclusive. Tarot was used as early as the 16th century to compose poems describing personality characteristics (tarocchi appropriati). In one case (1527), the verses are presented as relating to the person's fate. There are records of divinatory meanings assigned to tarot cards in Bologna early in the 1700s. This is the first unambiguous evidence of tarot divination as it is commonly understood. However, it is known that ordinary playing cards were connected with divination as early as 1487, so it is reasonable to conjecture that tarot was also. From the 1790s with Etteilla's deck we find tarot design being modified specifically to reflect divinatory and esoteric meanings.

Topic: Occult philosophy and the original design of the tarot

Inaccurate: There are no hermetic, heretical, or kabbalistic characteristics in the original tarot.

Current Historical Understanding: This topic is still open. The early Italian Renaissance, which gave birth to the tarot, was a time of great intellectual diversity and activity. Hermeticism, astrology, Neoplatonism, Pythagorean philosophy with roots in Alexandrian Egypt, and heterodox Christian thought all thrived. Any or all of these may have left their mark on the design of the tarot. Although it should be remembered that all of the symbolism of the tarot has close analogs in the conventional Christian culture of the time, many scholars today believe that these philosophies, which are foundations of occultism, were important in the design of the tarot.

Topic: Tarot and the western esoteric tradition

Inaccurate: The tarot has always been a pillar of the western esoteric tradition.

Current Historical Understanding: The first occult writers to discuss the tarot were Court de Gébelin and the Comte de Mellet in 1781. For the first 350 years of its history, the tarot was not mentioned in any of the many books on occult or magical philosophy. Following 1781, occult interest in tarot blossomed and the tarot then became an integral part of occult philosophy.

Topic: Astrological, elemental, and kabbalistic correspondences

Inaccurate: The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (or Eliphas Lévi, Papus, Zain, Case, etc.) knew the true astrological, elemental, and Kabbalistic correspondences to the Tarot and corrected previous errors.

Current Historical Understanding: There are many, many systems of correspondences for the tarot. None can be shown to go back to the tarot's origins, although the French tradition exemplified in the works of Eliphas Lévi predates the English tradition now familiar through the works of Waite and Crowley. Most sets of correspondences have a rationale and system that make them meaningful and useful when studied within their own tradition. Correspondences are a matter of individual choice and of intention or adherence to a school of thought rather than right or wrong.

Topic: The Waite-Smith Tarot

Inaccurate: The Waite-Smith (or "Rider Waite") Tarot is the original, standard, or most authentic tarot.

Current Historical Understanding: The Waite-Smith deck was created in 1909, making it a relative newcomer in the almost-600-year history of the tarot. A. E. Waite was a prominent member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. The deck owes much of its symbolism to that group and represents a departure from the earlier French tradition. The artist, Pamela Colman Smith, contributed her own vision, especially in the innovative creation of fully illustrated scenes for the minor arcana. For many years, the Waite-Smith deck was the only one readily available in the US, so it became familiar to whole generations of tarot readers. There is actually no "definitive" version of the tarot.

The well-known Celtic Cross spread, publicized by Waite as "an ancient Celtic method of divination" is also relatively recent, although it was not invented by Waite.

Some things to be careful of when writing about tarot history

The terms "major arcana", "minor arcana", "High Priestess", and "Hierophant" are anachronistic when referring to the older tarot decks. The historically appropriate terms are "the trumps and the Fool" (the Fool was not usually regarded as a trump), "the suit cards", "Papess" or "Popess", and "Pope". Likewise "pentacles" and "wands" are relatively recent substitutions for the traditional suit names of "coins" and "staves" or "batons".

The original Italian titles of the cards were in some cases different from the later French titles (and their English translations) that have become familiar to us through the Tarot de Marseille and its descendants. Also, the ordering of the trumps varied considerably in Italy where the cards originated; it is not known which ordering is the earliest one. Even the number of cards in the deck varied a great deal! So care should be used in making statements about the original meaning of the cards based on the familiar titles and ordering.

The intention of the original designer(s) of the tarot in selecting the symbols for the trump cards is unknown, although there are many conjectures, some more plausible than others. Writers should avoid giving the impression that the intention is known or obvious.

Sources and suggested reading:

Decker, Ronald, Michael Dummett, and Thierry Depaulis, A Wicked Pack of Cards

Dummett, Michael, The Game of Tarot

Giles, Cythnia, The Tarot: History, Mystery, and Lore

Kaplan, Stuart, The Encyclopedia of Tarot, Vol. I & II

Moakley, Gertrude, The Tarot Cards Painted by Bonifacio Bembo

O'Neill, Robert V., Tarot Symbolism

Williams, Brian, A Renaissance Tarot

Williams, Brian, The Minchiate Tarot

Web sites:

The Hermitage, http://www.tarothermit.com/

Andy's Playing Cards, http://www.geocities.com/a_pollett/

Villa Revak, http://jwrevak.tripod.com/

Sources of the Waite-Smith Symbols, http://www.geocities.com/~ninalee//oneill/

Tarot Magick in the 16th Century, http://lonestar.texas.net/~r3winter/tarmag116.html

This information sheet is available in several formats: printed hardcopy, formatted electronic (Microsoft Word for Windows), and unformatted electronic (email text), print-friendly web page (http://www.tarothermit.com/infosheet.htm), and illustrated and hyperlinked web page (http://jwrevak.tripod.com/misc/tarotl_1.html). Direct inquiries to the editor, Tom Tadfor Little, at tom@telp.com.

Every subject has its own terminology and body of basic knowledge. Tarot history is no exception. The entries in this glossary should help the newcomer to the field gain familiarity with the terminology.

Belgium, Belgian Tarot: The earliest surviving Belgian tarots, also known misleadingly as "Cartes de Suisses", date from the early 18th century. Although the trumps follow the Marseilles ordering, several of the designs are quite different: The Papess and Pope are replaced by the Spanish Captain and the wine-god Bacchus; Temperance bears a staff, and the Tower is replaced by a picture of lightning striking a tree. The Belgian tarot may preserve designs from an Italian pattern (possibly the Tarocco Bolognese), introduced to France independently of the Milan/Marseilles version.

Bembo, Bonifacio: Milanese court painter, to whom some of the Visconti-Sforza cards are attributed.

Besançon, Tarot de Besançon: a variant of the Tarot de Marseille was made in eastern France, Switzerland and Germany, from the early 18th century. The Papess and Pope are replaced by the pagan deities Junon and Jupiter. The Tarot de Besançon became the model for the Swiss Tarot.

Betts, Timothy: In Tarot and the Millenium (1998), mathematical physicist Timothy Betts argues that the tarot trumps tell the story of an apocalyptic prophecy, sequel to the Biblical book of Revelation, that was popular in the 14th century.

Boiardo: a late 15th-century writer who created a variant tarot-like game with cards representing virtues, vices, and other qualities of moral character.

Bologna, Tarocco Bolognese: Besides having a distinctive order and distinctive card designs, the Tarocco Bolognese is interesting in two other respects: the Papess, Empress, Emperor, and Pope are all of equal rank and were replaced by four identical "moors" in the 17th century, and the number cards 2 through 5 in each suit were ommitted, making a reduced deck of only 62 cards. For this reason, the Bolognese game is called tarocchino (little tarot).

Cartes de Suisses: see Belgium.

Cary sheet: an uncut sheet of woodblock tarot cards, delicately drawn, dating from around 1500. The sheet is probably from Milan, but shows designs in many cases strikingly similar to those of the Tarot de Marseille.

Cary-Yale Visconti (Visconti Modrone): one of the lavish hand-painted decks associated with the ducal families of Milan. This deck has an extended system of court cards, with female pages and knights in addition to the male ones. The trumps include the theological virtues of Faith, Hope, and Charity. Because many cards are missing, the complete list of trump subjects is not known. See Visconti-Sforza.

Charles VI cards: see Gringonneur cards.

Conver, Nicolas: a French cardmaker whose 1760 Tarot of Marseilles is taken as a classic example of the pattern.

cosmograph: a representation of the fundamental elements of reality and the relationships between them. In narrow terms, a cosmograph is a map of the universe. Taken more broadly, an abstract structure, such as the qabalistic Tree of Life, is also a type of cosmograph.

Della Rocca: an artist working for the Milanese cardmaker Gumppenberg. Around 1835, Dellarocca produced a very fancy engraved tarot deck (generally known as Soprafino Tarot), which became the basis for later Tarocchino Milanese designs.

double-headed: cards that appear the same when turned upside down, like the court cards in a modern poker deck. Modern Piedmontese and Bolognese tarots are double-headed, the Tarocco Bolognese being one of the earliest decks of cards to acquire this feature.

D'Este Cards: A lavish hand-painted deck from the 15th century, presumably owned by the D'Este family, rulers of Ferrara.

Dummett, Michael: In The Game of Tarot (1980), logician Michael Dummett chronicles in prodigious detail the history of the tarot, focusing on the many variations of the tarot card game. The book also recounts the changes in card design and ordering that occurred as the tarot spread and evolved through the centuries. In A Wicked Pack of Cards (1996), Dummett and co-authors Thiery DePaulis and Ronald Decker relate the history of the French occultists, whose writings resulted in the transformation of the tarot from card game to occult divination tool. In both books, Dummett contends that there is no special significance to the original symbolism of the cards.

Gringonneur cards (Charles VI cards): an early set of hand-painted tarot cards, mistakenly identified with a set of regular playing cards made by Gringonneur for Charles VI of France in the 14th century. The cards probably date from the late 15th century.

Kaplan, Stuart: tarot collector and publisher, owner of US Games, Inc. In The Encyclopedia of Tarot, Kaplan illustrates a huge number of tarot decks (Volume I contains a sampling of the most important decks from different times and places; Volume II contains historic decks; Volume III is devoted to modern decks). Volume II also includes a detailed survey of trump names and orderings from early decks and documents, a good summary of Renaissance symbolism pertaining to the cards, and information on Petrarch and the Visconti and Sforza families.

Ferrara: One of the Italian cities in which tarot first became popular. Most scholars believe that the tarot was invented either in Milan or in Ferrara. Ferrara was ruled by the D'Este family, who owned one of the earliest hand-painted decks.

Flanders, Flemish Tarot: see Belgium

Florence: one of the major cities of the Renaissance. In the 16th century, a variant form of tarot called Minchiate was invented in Florence. There was also a 78-card Florentine tarot deck, but no certain examples of it have survived.

French-suited tarot: beginning in the 18th century, cardmakers began to produce tarot decks using the new French suit system (clubs, hearts, spades, diamonds). The traditional trump subjects were replaced by animals, scenic landscapes, and other decorative designs. The French-suited tarot cards became very popular in Austria, Germany, and the Netherlands. They are often called Tarock packs, this being the German word for tarot.

Gabriel: The archangel Gabriel is a divine messenger, announcing both the birth of Jesus and the second coming. He is depicted with his traditional trumpets on the Angel (Judgement) card of the tarot.

Geofroy, Catelin: a 16th-century French cardmaker who produced a luxury deck with nonstandard suit signs. The trump sequence, apparently, follows the odering of the Tarot de Marseille, making this deck the earliest example of the Marseilles ordering.

luxury deck: a deck designed to be especially decorative and appeal to collectors. Usually, such decks do not follow the a standard pattern very closely, and do not influence the subsequent evolution of the standard pattern.

Mantegna (Tarot of Mantegna, Tarocchi di Mantegna): a set of engravings dating from c.1470, depicting the estates of man (ranks of society), the muses, the liberal arts and sciences, the virtues, and the celestial spheres. Many of the designs closely resemble tarot designs. Despite the name, the Tarot of Mantegna was not a tarot deck and was not made by the famous Renaissance artist Andreas Mantegna. Its purpose was apparently to illustrate a Neoplatonic philosophical system of the structure of the cosmos. The engravings were probably the work of an artist from Ferrara.

Marseilles, Tarot de Marseille: the most widely circulated variant of the tarot is the Tarot de Marseilles ("Tarot of Marseilles" in English). These designs, and the Marseilles ordering of the trumps, became the basis for occult and modern tarot decks. The Marseilles tarot itself almost certainly originated in Milan, and spread to France when the French occupied that city around 1500.

Metropolitan Museum sheet: An uncut sheet of woodblock tarot cards, dating from around 1500. They may be examples of the Tarot of Ferrara or Venice, which otherwise have not survived.

Michael: The archangel Michael is a dispenser of Justice, appearing in this role at the Last Judgement. He is traditionally depicted with sword and scales, closely resembling the personification of Justice as a cardinal virtue.

Milan: One of the Italian cities in which tarot first became popular. Most scholars believe that the tarot was invented either in Milan or in Ferrara. The earliest surviving decks, the Visconti-Sforza, are from Milan. The popularity of tarot in Milan declined greatly in the 17th century, and the decks used in Milan (and throughout northern Italy) in the 18th and 19th centuries are variants of the Tarot de Marseille, reintroduced to Italy from France early in the 18th century.

Minchiate: In the 16th century, a variant form of tarot called Minchiate was invented in Florence. A Minchiate deck includes 20 additional trump cards: the signs of the zodiac, the four elements, and the four virtues (Prudence, Faith, Hope, and Charity) missing from the standard tarot. Minchiate was also called Gemini or Germini, and became very popular from the 17th through the 19th centuries, in places as far away as Sicily, Genoa, and even France.

Mitelli: an engraved luxury deck was made by artist Giuseppi Maria Mitelli of Bologna in 1665.

Moakley, Gertrude: In The Tarot Cards Painted by Bonifacio Bembo (1966), librarian Gertrude Moakley connects the symbolism of the Visconti-Sforza tarot cards with the triumphi paradigm and Visconti family history. For summary and commentary on Moakley's book, see the Moakley 101 series on this web site.

O'Neill, Robert: In Tarot Symbolism (1986), biologist Robert O'Neill examines a wide range of philosophical and cultural influences that might have contributed to the design of the tarot, concluding that the cards are a pictorial synthesis of the philosophical and theological ideas of the time, particularly the Neoplatonic concept of a hierarchy of intermediaries through which humans may approach mystical union with the Divine.

Paris: A 17th-century luxury deck, made in Paris, resembles both the Viéville Tarot and the Belgian Tarot but also includes many novel trump designs.

pattern: see standard pattern.

Petrarch: a 14th-century writer whose poem I Trionfi describes a series of allegorical triumphs (Love, Chastity, Death, Fame, Time, and Eternity) somewhat reminiscent of the tarot sequence.

Pierpont-Morgan/Bergamo Visconti-Sforza: the most beautiful and most nearly complete set of hand-painted Visconti-Sforza cards, probably made to commemorate the ascension of Francesco Sforza to the ducal title in 1450. Most of the cards were probably painted by court painter Bonifacio Bembo, although some (Fortitude, Temperance, Star, Moon, Sun, and World) are apparently replacement cards by a Ferrarese artist. The Devil and Fire (Tower) cards are missing from the set.

Pope Joan: a well-known legendary figure of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Joan was a woman who ascended to the papacy disguised as a man, only to have her secret revealed when she collapsed in childbirth during a processional. As the only widely known "female pope", she may be the model of the tarot Papess.

Rome: It is unlikely that Rome ever had its own distinctive form of tarot. If tarot was played in Rome, the Tarot of Florence or the Minchiate were probably used.

Rosenwald sheet: an uncut sheet of woodblock tarot cards, dating from about 1500, using very simple designs. The designs may have been a predessor to the tarot of Florence.

Rothschild sheet: actually two uncut sheets of woodblock tarot cards, one in the Rothschild collection and another in Budapest, dating from about 1500. The designs appear to be an early form of the tarot of Bologna.

Sforza, Francesco: fourth duke of Milan, reigning from 1450 to 1466. His claim to the title was based on his marriage to Filippo Visconti's illegitimate daughter Bianca, and enforced through military conquest of the city three years after the Filippo's death. The Visconti-Sforza cards, particularly the almost complete Pierpont-Morgan/Bergamo set, combine Sforza and Visconti heraldry, and were probably commissioned by Sforza.

Sicily, Tarocco Siciliano: Tarot was introduced into Sicily relatively late, reportedly in the seventeenth century. The unusual Sicilian Tarot, or Tarocco Siciliano, is derived from the Tarot of Florence, but has many unique designs. The Sicilian deck, like the Tarocco Bolognese, is shortened by omitting low-numbered cards in each suit.

Sola Busca: a variant tarot deck, dating from the late 15th century. It has "ancient warriors" in place of the usual trump subjects, and has pictorial illustrations on the pip cards. Some of these illustrations served as models for Pamela Colman Smith when she created the famous Waite-Smith deck in 1909. There is an excellent web site devoted to the Sola Busca deck.

standard pattern: a set of designs that is followed closely from printing to printing. When a deck of cards wears out or cards become lost, players generally prefer to replace the deck with another using the same familiar designs. Hence cardmakers tend to update their designs little if at all. The Tarot of Marseilles is an excellent example of a standard pattern. The designs remained essentially the same over a period of at least three centuries, even though they were made by many different printers in many different cities.

Steele sermon: a sermon condemning the game of tarot, written by an unknown cleric in the late 15th century. It contains the earliest listing of the tarot trumps.

Swiss Tarot: An artistic engraved tarot design originating around 1830, based loosely on the Tarot de Besançon. Often called Swiss 1JJ, the "JJ" refers to Junon and Jupiter, which replace the Papess and Pope in this deck. The Swiss Tarot includes many unusual designs in the trumps, some of which may reflect early Italian designs.

tarocchi: The Italian form of "tarot". The etymology of the word is unknown. Tarocchi is plural, the singular is tarocco. The term came into use in the 16th century, due to confusion over the use of the older name, trionfi.

tarocchi appropriati: a 16th-century literary form consisting of verses comparing various persons (typically ladies of the court) with the tarot trumps.

tarock: see French-suited tarot.

tetramorph: a standard religious emblem in which four living creatures (bull, lion, eagle, and angel) representing the four gospels are arrayed at the corners of a central mandorla. The tetramorph is seen on the World card in the Tarot of Marseilles and related decks.

triumphi (triumphs, trionfi): Latin for "triumphs" (Italian trionfi). Tarot cards were originally known as carte da trionfi, or cards of triumphs. The 14th-century poet Petrarch wrote a famous poem called I Trionfi, in which a series of allegories, each more powerful that the last, triumphs over the one that came before. The word also refers to the triumphal processions, dating from Roman times, in which a victorious commander would ride into the city on a chariot, with captives in tow, a practice that is ancestral to modern-day parades. Moakley has suggested that the triumphal processions, and particularly Petrarch's allegorical rendition of the theme, served as a model for the Triumph Cards now known as tarot.

trump: a corruption of the Italian trionfo, or triumph. The term refers to the special symbolic cards of the tarot, which "triumph" over the ordinary cards in play. The Fool is sometimes considered a trump, but more often is called "the excuse", since it never wins a trick but may be played at any time, regardless of which suit is led.

Venice: although there is a long tradition of referring to certain tarot designs as "Venetian", and many early references to tarot cards are associated with Venice, there are no surviving cards that can be positively identified as Venetian. The game of tarot was probably not played there much after the 16th century.

Viéville, Jacques: the maker of a French tarot deck (c. 1650) which differs from the Tarot de Marseille, but resembles the later Belgian Tarot. Two of the cards have the titles of the trumps inscribed on them, presumably as a reference for players.

Visconti, Filippo Maria: third duke of Milan, reigning from 1416 to 1447. Some of the Visconti-Sforza cards were probably commissioned during his reign.

Visconti-Sforza: the earliest surviving tarot decks were expensive works of art created for the Visconti and Sforza families who ruled Milan in the 15th century. Several different decks were made. The most well known is the Pierpont-Morgan/Bergamo deck, which is missing only four cards. The other decks are all less complete. The Cary-Yale/Modrone deck apparently included 6 court cards in each suit (knights and pages were given female counterparts), and had additional trumps, including the theological virtues Faith, Hope, and Charity.

Williams, Brian: in A Renaissance Tarot (1997), artist Brian Williams examines the iconographic tradition of the tarot symbols in the Renaissance, clarifying the meanings the symbols had for people in the 15th century.

An Hermetic Origin of the Tarot Cards? A Consideration of the Tarocchi of Mantegna (Adam McLean)

Tarot Origins: Sorting Out History and Myth (George Leake) article connecting tarot with the triumphi paradigm and related influences, such as the danse macabre.

Sola Busca (Tea) site devoted to this anomalous 15th-century deck. Includes pictures of each card in the modern restoration deck

The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (Jacob Burckhart) online book on Renaissance history and culture

Medieval Lecture List (Lynn Nelson) course notes on medieval history

International Playing Card Society information on the history of cards, including tarot

Game Report: Early French Tarot (Justin du Coeur) rules for the game of tarot, as played in 17th-century France

Gallery of Tarot Decks pictures and description of a number of decks, including some historic patterns

Playing-Card FAQ (Daf Tregear) lots of information on playing cards and their history

Tarot of Marseilles (Camoin and Jodorowsky) commercial site promoting a new, restored Tarot of Marseilles; lots of information and pictures of historic Marseilles decks

Alida tarot-card seller in San Marino, offering many decks not available in US; nice web store with pictures of all decks; excellent service; recommended.

Il Trigono Italian tarot-card seller, lots of pictures, slightly different selection than Alida

Lo Scarabeo Italian publisher whose catalog includes a number of reproduction and restoration decks

The Planets and Their Children: A Blockbook of Medieval Popular Astrology some imagery from these 15th-century astrological books resemble tarot cards

 Compiled and edited by Tom Tadfor Little   http://www.tarothermit.com